1. What is denormalization and when would you go for it?
As the name indicates, denormalization is the reverse process of normalization. It's the
controlled introduction of redundancy in to the database design. It helps improve the query
performance as the number of joins could be reduced.
2. How do you implement one-to-one, one-to-many and many-to-many relationships
while designing tables?
One-to-One relationship can be implemented as a single table and rarely as two tables with
primary and foreign key relationships. One-to-Many relationships are implemented by splitting
the data into two tables with primary key and foreign key relationships. Many-to-Many
relationships are implemented using a junction table with the keys from both the tables
forming the composite primary key of the junction table.
3. What's the difference between a primary key and a unique key?
Both primary key and unique enforce uniqueness of the column on which they are defined. But
by default primary key creates a clustered index on the column, where are unique creates a
nonclustered index by default. Another major difference is that, primary key doesn't allow
NULLs, but unique key allows one NULL only.
4. What are user defined datatypes and when you should go for them?
User defined datatypes let you extend the base SQL Server datatypes by providing a
descriptive name, and format to the database. Take for example, in your database, there is a
column called ZIP_Code which appears in many tables. In all these tables it should be
varchar(6). In this case you could create a user defined datatype called ZIP_Code_Type of
varchar(6) and use it across all your tables.
5. What is bit datatype and what's the information that can be stored inside a bit
column?
Bit datatype is used to store boolean information like 1 or 0 (true or false). Untill SQL Server
6.5 bit datatype could hold either a 1 or 0 and there was no support for NULL. But from SQL
Server 7.0 onwards, bit datatype can represent a third state, which is NULL.
6. Define candidate key, alternate key, composite key.
A candidate key is one that can identify each row of a table uniquely. Generally a candidate
key becomes the primary key of the table. If the table has more than one candidate key, one
of them will become the primary key, and the rest are called alternate keys. A key formed by
combining at least two or more columns is called composite key.
7. What are defaults? Is there a column to which a default can't be bound?
A default is a value that will be used by a column, if no value is supplied to that column while
inserting data. IDENTITY columns and timestamp columns can't have defaults bound to them.
See CREATE DEFUALT in books online.
8. What is a transaction and what are ACID properties?
A transaction is a logical unit of work in which, all the steps must be performed or none. ACID
stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability. These are the properties of a
transaction. For more information and explanation of these properties, see SQL Server books
online or any RDBMS fundamentals text book.
9. Explain different isolation levels An isolation level determines the degree of isolation
of data between concurrent transactions.
The default SQL Server isolation level is Read Committed. Here are the other isolation levels
(in the ascending order of isolation): Read Uncommitted, Read Committed, Repeatable Read,
Serializable.
10. How does .NET and SQL SERVER thread is work?
There are two types of threading pre-emptive and Non-preemptive but Sql Server support
Non-preemptive and .NET thread model is different. Because Sql have to handle thread in
different way for SQLCLR this different thread are known as Tasking of Threads . In this thread
there is a switch between SQLCLR and SQL SERVER threads .SQL SERVER uses blocking points
for transition to happen between SQLCLR and SQL SERVER threads.
11. What's the maximum size of a row?
8060 bytes.
12. What is lock escalation?
Strong names are required to store shared assemblies in the global assembly cache (GAC).
This is because the GAC allows multiple versions of the same assembly to reside on your
system simultaneously, so that each application can find and use its own version of your
assembly. This helps avoid DLL Hell, where applications that may be compiled to different
versions of your assembly could potentially break because they are all forced to use the same
version of your assembly. Another reason to use strong names is to make it difficult for
hackers to spoof your assembly, in other words, replace or inject your assembly with a virus
or malicious code.
13. What's the difference between DELETE TABLE and TRUNCATE TABLE commands?
DELETE TABLE is a logged operation, so the deletion of each row gets logged in the
transaction log, which makes it slow. TRUNCATE TABLE also deletes all the rows in a table, but
it won't log the deletion of each row, instead it logs the deallocation of the data pages of the
table, which makes it faster. Of course, TRUNCATE TABLE can be rolled back.
14. What are constraints? Explain different types of constraints.
Constraints enable the RDBMS enforce the integrity of the database automatically, without
needing you to create triggers, rule or defaults. Types of constraints: NOT NULL, CHECK,
UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY
15. What is an index?
Indexes in SQL Server are similar to the indexes in books. They help SQL Server retrieve the
data quicker.
16. What are the types of indexes?
Indexes are of two types. Clustered indexes and non-clustered indexes. When you craete a
clustered index on a table, all the rows in the table are stored in the order of the clustered
index key. So, there can be only one clustered index per table. Non-clustered indexes have
their own storage separate from the table data storage. Non-clustered indexes are stored as
B-tree structures (so do clustered indexes), with the leaf level nodes having the index key and
it's row locater. The row located could be the RID or the Clustered index key, depending up on
the absence or presence of clustered index on the table.
17. I create a separate index on each column of a table. what are the advantages and
disadvantages of this approach?
If you create an index on each column of a table, it improves the query performance, as the
query optimizer can choose from all the existing indexes to come up with an efficient
execution plan. At the same t ime, data modification operations (such as INSERT, UPDATE,
DELETE) will become slow, as every time data changes in the table, all the indexes need to be
updated. Another disadvantage is that, indexes need disk space, the more indexes you have,
more disk space is used.
18. What is RAID and what are different types of RAID configurations?
RAID stands for Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks, used to provide fault tolerance to
database servers. There are six RAID levels 0 through 5 offering different levels of
performance, fault tolerance.
19. What are the steps you will take, if you are tasked with securing an SQL Server?
Preferring NT authentication, using server, databse and application roles to control access to
the data, securing the physical database files using NTFS permissions, using an unguessable
SA password, restricting physical access to the SQL Server, renaming the Administrator
account on the SQL Server computer, disabling the Guest account, enabling auditing, using
multiprotocol encryption, setting up SSL, setting up firewalls, isolating SQL Server from the
web server etc.
20. What is a deadlock and what is a live lock? How will you go about resolving
deadlocks?
Deadlock is a situation when two processes, each having a lock on one piece of data, attempt
to acquire a lock on the other's piece. Each process would wait indefinitely for the other to
release the lock, unless one of the user processes is terminated. SQL Server detects deadlocks
and terminates one user's process. A livelock is one, where a request for an exclusive lock is
repeatedly denied because a series of overlapping shared locks keeps interfering. SQL Server
detects the situation after four denials and refuses further shared locks. A livelock also occurs
when read transactions monopolize a table or page, forcing a write transaction to wait
indefinitely.
21. What is blocking and how would you troubleshoot it?
Blocking happens when one connection from an application holds a lock and a second
connection requires a conflicting lock type. This forces the second connection to wait, blocked
on the first.
22. How to restart SQL Server in single user mode?
SQL Server can be started from command line, using the SQLSERVR.EXE. This EXE has some
very important parameters with which a DBA should be familiar with. -m is used for starting
SQL Server in single user mode and -f is used to start the SQL Server in minimal
confuguration mode.
23. what are the DBCC commands that you commonly use for database maintenance?
DBCC CHECKDB - Ensures that tables in the db and the indexes are correctly linked.and DBCC
CHECKALLOC - To check that all pages in a db are correctly allocated. DBCC SQLPERF - It
gives report on current usage of transaction log in percentage. DBCC CHECKFILEGROUP -
Checks all tables file group for any damage.
24. What are statistics?
Statistics determine the selectivity of the indexes. If an indexed column has unique values
then the selectivity of that index is more, as opposed to an index with non-unique values.
Query optimizer uses these indexes in determining whether to choose an index or not while
executing a query.
25. Under what circumstances they go out of date, how do you update statistics?
Some situations under which you should update statistics:
1) If there is significant change in the key values in the index
2) If a large amount of data in an indexed column has been added, changed, or removed (that
is, if the distribution of key values has changed), or the table has been truncated using the
TRUNCATE TABLE statement and then repopulated
3) Database is upgraded from a previous version Look up SQL Server books online for the
following commands: UPDATE STATISTICS, STATS_DATE, DBCC SHOW_STATISTICS, CREATE
STATISTICS, DROP STATISTICS, sp_autostats, sp_createstats, sp_updatestats
26. What are the different ways of moving data/databases between servers and
databases in SQL Server?
BACKUP/RESTORE, dettaching and attaching databases, replication, DTS, BCP, logshipping,
INSERT...SELECT, SELECT...INTO, creating INSERT scripts to generate data.
27. Explian different types of BACKUPs avaialabe in SQL Server?
Full database backup, differential database backup, transaction log backup, filegroup backup.
28. What is database replicaion?
Replication is the process of copying/moving data between databases on the same or different
servers.
29. What are the different types of replication you can set up in SQL Server?
SQL Server supports the following types of replication scenarios:
* Snapshot replication
* Transactional replication (with immediate updating subscribers, with queued updating
subscribers)
* Merge replication
30. How to determine the service pack currently installed on SQL Server?
The global variable @@Version stores the build number of the sqlservr.exe, which is used to
determine the service pack installed.
31. What are cursors?
Cursors allow row-by-row prcessing of the resultsets.
32. Explain different types of cursors.
Types of cursors:
Static, Dynamic, Forward-only, Keyset-driven.
33. What are the disadvantages of cursors?
Disadvantages of cursors:
Each time you fetch a row from the cursor, it results in a network roundtrip, where as a
normal SELECT query makes only one rowundtrip, however large the resultset is. Cursors are
also costly because they require more resources and temporary storage (results in more IO
operations). Furthere, there are restrictions on the SELECT statements that can be used with
some types of cursors.
34. How can you avoid cursors?
Most of the times, set based operations can be used instead of cursors. Another situation in
which developers tend to use cursors: You need to call a stored procedure when a column in a
particular row meets certain condition. You don't have to use cursors for this. This can be
achieved using WHILE loop, as long as there is a unique key to identify each row.
35. What is a join?
Joins are used in queries to explain how different tables are related. Joins also let you select
data from a table depending upon data from another table.
36. Explain different types of joins.
Types of joins:
INNER JOINs, OUTER JOINs, CROSS JOINs. OUTER JOINs are further classified as LEFT OUTER
JOINS, RIGHT OUTER JOINS and FULL OUTER JOINS.
37. Can you have a nested transaction?
Yes, very much.
38. What is an extended stored procedure?
An extended stored procedure is a function within a DLL (written in a programming language
like C, C++ using Open Data Services (ODS) API) that can be called from T-SQL, just the way
we call normal stored procedures using the EXEC statement.
39. Can you instantiate a COM object by using T-SQL?
Yes, you can instantiate a COM (written in languages like VB, VC++) object from T-SQL by
using sp_OACreate stored procedure.
40. What is the system function to get the current user's user id?
USER_ID(). Some more system functions: USER_NAME(), SYSTEM_USER, SESSION_USER,
CURRENT_USER, USER, SUSER_SID(), HOST_NAME().
41. What are triggers?
Triggers are special kind of stored procedures that get executed automatically when an
INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE operation takes place on a table.
42. How many triggers you can have on a table?
In SQL Server 6.5 you could define only 3 triggers per table, one for INSERT, one for UPDATE
and one for DELETE. From SQL Server 7.0 onwards, this restriction is gone, and you could
create multiple triggers per each action.
43. How to invoke a trigger on demand?
In SQL Server 7.0 there's no way to control the order in which the triggers fire. In SQL Server
2000 you could specify which trigger fires first or fires last using sp_settriggerorder Triggers
can't be invoked on demand. They get triggered only when an associated action (INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE) happens on the table on which they are defined.
44. What are the uses of Triggers?
Triggers are generally used to implement business rules, auditing. Triggers can also be used to
extend the referential integrity checks, but wherever possible, use constraints for this
purpose, instead of triggers, as constraints are much faster. Till SQL Server 7.0, triggers fire
only after the data modification operation happens. So in a way, they are called post triggers.
But in SQL Server 2000 you could create pre triggers also. Search SQL Server 2000 books
online for INSTEAD OF triggers.
45. What is a self join? Explain it with an example.
Self join is just like any other join, except that two instances of the same table will be joined
in the query. Here is an example: Employees table which contains rows for normal employees
as well as managers. So, to find out the managers of all the employees, you need a self join.
46. What is normalization?
The Process of organizing relational data into tables is actually referred to as normalization.
47. What is a Stored Procedure?
Its nothing but a set of T-SQL statements combined to perform a single task of several tasks.
Its basically like a Macro so when you invoke the Stored procedure, you actually run a set of
statements.
48. Can you give an example of Stored Procedure?
sp_helpdb , sp_who2, sp_renamedb are a set of system defined stored procedures. We can
also have user defined stored procedures which can be called in similar way.
49. What is the basic difference between clustered and a non-clustered index?
The difference is that, Clustered index is unique for any given table and we can have only one
clustered index on a table. The leaf level of a clustered index is the actual data and the data is
resorted in case of clustered index. Whereas in case of non-clustered index the leaf level is
actually a pointer to the data in rows so we can have as many non-clustered indexes as we
can on the db.
50. When do we use the UPDATE_STATISTICS command?
This command is basically used when we do a large processing of data. If we do a large
amount of deletions any modification or Bulk Copy into the tables, we need to basically update
the indexes to take these changes into account. UPDATE_STATISTICS updates the indexes on
these tables accordingly.
51. Which TCP/IP port does SQL Server run on?
SQL Server runs on port 1433 but we can also change it for better security.
52. From where can you change the default port?
From the Network Utility TCP/IP properties –> Port number.both on client and the
server.
53. Can we use Truncate command on a table which is referenced by FOREIGN KEY?
No. We cannot use Truncate command on a table with Foreign Key because of referential
integrity.
54. What is the use of DBCC commands?
DBCC stands for database consistency checker. We use these commands to check the
consistency of the databases, i.e., maintenance, validation task and status checks.
55. What command do we use to rename a db?
sp_renamedb ‘oldname’ , ‘newname’
56. Sometimes sp_reanmedb may not work you know because if some one is using the
db it will not accept this command so what do you think you can do in such cases?
In such cases we can first bring to db to single user using sp_dboptions and then we can
rename that db and then we can rerun the sp_dboptions command to remove the single user
mode.
57. What is the difference between a HAVING CLAUSE and a WHERE CLAUSE?
Having Clause is basically used only with the GROUP BY function in a query. WHERE Clause is
applied to each row before they are part of the GROUP BY function in a query.
58. What do you mean by COLLATION?
Collation is basically the sort order. There are three types of sort order Dictionary case
sensitive, Dictonary - case insensitive and Binary.
59. When do you use SQL Profiler?
SQL Profiler utility allows us to basically track connections to the SQL Server and also
determine activities such as which SQL Scripts are running, failed jobs etc..
60. What is a Linked Server?
Linked Servers is a concept in SQL Server by which we can add other SQL Server to a Group
and query both the SQL Server dbs using T-SQL Statements.
61. Can you link only other SQL Servers or any database servers such as Oracle?
We can link any server provided we have the OLE-DB provider from Microsoft to allow a link.
For Oracle we have a OLE-DB provider for oracle that microsoft provides to add it as a linked
server to the sql server group.
62. Which stored procedure will you be running to add a linked server?
sp_addlinkedserver, sp_addlinkedsrvlogin
63. What are the OS services that the SQL Server installation adds?
MS SQL SERVER SERVICE, SQL AGENT SERVICE, DTC (Distribution transac co-ordinator)
64. Can you explain the role of each service?
SQL SERVER - is for running the databases SQL AGENT - is for automation such as Jobs, DB
Maintanance, Backups DTC - Is for linking and connecting to other SQL Servers
65. How do you troubleshoot SQL Server if its running very slow?
First check the processor and memory usage to see that processor is not above 80%
utilization and memory not above 40-45% utilization then check the disk utilization using
Performance Monitor, Secondly, use SQL Profiler to check for the users and current SQL
activities and jobs running which might be a problem. Third would be to run
UPDATE_STATISTICS command to update the indexes
66. Due to N/W or Security issues client is not able to connect to server or vice versa.
How do you troubleshoot?
First I will look to ensure that port settings are proper on server and client Network utility for
connections. ODBC is properly configured at client end for connection; Makepipe & readpipe
are utilities to check for connection. Makepipe is run on Server and readpipe on client to check
for any connection issues.
67. What are the authentication modes in SQL Server?
Windows mode and mixed mode (SQL & Windows).
68. Where do you think the users names and passwords will be stored in sql server?
They get stored in master db in the sysxlogins table.
69. What is log shipping? Can we do logshipping with SQL Server 7.0?
Logshipping is a new feature of SQL Server 2000. We should have two SQL Server - Enterprise
Editions. From Enterprise Manager we can configure the logshipping. In logshipping the
transactional log file from one server is automatically updated into the backup database on the
other server. If one server fails, the other server will have the same db and we can use this as
the DR (disaster recovery) plan.
70. SQL Server crashed and you are rebuilding the databases including the master
database what procedure to you follow?
For restoring the master db we have to stop the SQL Server first and then from command line
we can type SQLSERVER which will basically bring it into the
maintenance mode after which we can restore the master db.
71. What is BCP? When do we use it?
BulkCopy is a tool used to copy huge amount of data from tables and views. But it
won't copy the structures of the same.
72. What should we do to copy the tables, schema and views from one SQL Server to
another?
We have to write some DTS packages for it.
As the name indicates, denormalization is the reverse process of normalization. It's the
controlled introduction of redundancy in to the database design. It helps improve the query
performance as the number of joins could be reduced.
2. How do you implement one-to-one, one-to-many and many-to-many relationships
while designing tables?
One-to-One relationship can be implemented as a single table and rarely as two tables with
primary and foreign key relationships. One-to-Many relationships are implemented by splitting
the data into two tables with primary key and foreign key relationships. Many-to-Many
relationships are implemented using a junction table with the keys from both the tables
forming the composite primary key of the junction table.
3. What's the difference between a primary key and a unique key?
Both primary key and unique enforce uniqueness of the column on which they are defined. But
by default primary key creates a clustered index on the column, where are unique creates a
nonclustered index by default. Another major difference is that, primary key doesn't allow
NULLs, but unique key allows one NULL only.
4. What are user defined datatypes and when you should go for them?
User defined datatypes let you extend the base SQL Server datatypes by providing a
descriptive name, and format to the database. Take for example, in your database, there is a
column called ZIP_Code which appears in many tables. In all these tables it should be
varchar(6). In this case you could create a user defined datatype called ZIP_Code_Type of
varchar(6) and use it across all your tables.
5. What is bit datatype and what's the information that can be stored inside a bit
column?
Bit datatype is used to store boolean information like 1 or 0 (true or false). Untill SQL Server
6.5 bit datatype could hold either a 1 or 0 and there was no support for NULL. But from SQL
Server 7.0 onwards, bit datatype can represent a third state, which is NULL.
6. Define candidate key, alternate key, composite key.
A candidate key is one that can identify each row of a table uniquely. Generally a candidate
key becomes the primary key of the table. If the table has more than one candidate key, one
of them will become the primary key, and the rest are called alternate keys. A key formed by
combining at least two or more columns is called composite key.
7. What are defaults? Is there a column to which a default can't be bound?
A default is a value that will be used by a column, if no value is supplied to that column while
inserting data. IDENTITY columns and timestamp columns can't have defaults bound to them.
See CREATE DEFUALT in books online.
8. What is a transaction and what are ACID properties?
A transaction is a logical unit of work in which, all the steps must be performed or none. ACID
stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability. These are the properties of a
transaction. For more information and explanation of these properties, see SQL Server books
online or any RDBMS fundamentals text book.
9. Explain different isolation levels An isolation level determines the degree of isolation
of data between concurrent transactions.
The default SQL Server isolation level is Read Committed. Here are the other isolation levels
(in the ascending order of isolation): Read Uncommitted, Read Committed, Repeatable Read,
Serializable.
10. How does .NET and SQL SERVER thread is work?
There are two types of threading pre-emptive and Non-preemptive but Sql Server support
Non-preemptive and .NET thread model is different. Because Sql have to handle thread in
different way for SQLCLR this different thread are known as Tasking of Threads . In this thread
there is a switch between SQLCLR and SQL SERVER threads .SQL SERVER uses blocking points
for transition to happen between SQLCLR and SQL SERVER threads.
11. What's the maximum size of a row?
8060 bytes.
12. What is lock escalation?
Strong names are required to store shared assemblies in the global assembly cache (GAC).
This is because the GAC allows multiple versions of the same assembly to reside on your
system simultaneously, so that each application can find and use its own version of your
assembly. This helps avoid DLL Hell, where applications that may be compiled to different
versions of your assembly could potentially break because they are all forced to use the same
version of your assembly. Another reason to use strong names is to make it difficult for
hackers to spoof your assembly, in other words, replace or inject your assembly with a virus
or malicious code.
13. What's the difference between DELETE TABLE and TRUNCATE TABLE commands?
DELETE TABLE is a logged operation, so the deletion of each row gets logged in the
transaction log, which makes it slow. TRUNCATE TABLE also deletes all the rows in a table, but
it won't log the deletion of each row, instead it logs the deallocation of the data pages of the
table, which makes it faster. Of course, TRUNCATE TABLE can be rolled back.
14. What are constraints? Explain different types of constraints.
Constraints enable the RDBMS enforce the integrity of the database automatically, without
needing you to create triggers, rule or defaults. Types of constraints: NOT NULL, CHECK,
UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY
15. What is an index?
Indexes in SQL Server are similar to the indexes in books. They help SQL Server retrieve the
data quicker.
16. What are the types of indexes?
Indexes are of two types. Clustered indexes and non-clustered indexes. When you craete a
clustered index on a table, all the rows in the table are stored in the order of the clustered
index key. So, there can be only one clustered index per table. Non-clustered indexes have
their own storage separate from the table data storage. Non-clustered indexes are stored as
B-tree structures (so do clustered indexes), with the leaf level nodes having the index key and
it's row locater. The row located could be the RID or the Clustered index key, depending up on
the absence or presence of clustered index on the table.
17. I create a separate index on each column of a table. what are the advantages and
disadvantages of this approach?
If you create an index on each column of a table, it improves the query performance, as the
query optimizer can choose from all the existing indexes to come up with an efficient
execution plan. At the same t ime, data modification operations (such as INSERT, UPDATE,
DELETE) will become slow, as every time data changes in the table, all the indexes need to be
updated. Another disadvantage is that, indexes need disk space, the more indexes you have,
more disk space is used.
18. What is RAID and what are different types of RAID configurations?
RAID stands for Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks, used to provide fault tolerance to
database servers. There are six RAID levels 0 through 5 offering different levels of
performance, fault tolerance.
19. What are the steps you will take, if you are tasked with securing an SQL Server?
Preferring NT authentication, using server, databse and application roles to control access to
the data, securing the physical database files using NTFS permissions, using an unguessable
SA password, restricting physical access to the SQL Server, renaming the Administrator
account on the SQL Server computer, disabling the Guest account, enabling auditing, using
multiprotocol encryption, setting up SSL, setting up firewalls, isolating SQL Server from the
web server etc.
20. What is a deadlock and what is a live lock? How will you go about resolving
deadlocks?
Deadlock is a situation when two processes, each having a lock on one piece of data, attempt
to acquire a lock on the other's piece. Each process would wait indefinitely for the other to
release the lock, unless one of the user processes is terminated. SQL Server detects deadlocks
and terminates one user's process. A livelock is one, where a request for an exclusive lock is
repeatedly denied because a series of overlapping shared locks keeps interfering. SQL Server
detects the situation after four denials and refuses further shared locks. A livelock also occurs
when read transactions monopolize a table or page, forcing a write transaction to wait
indefinitely.
21. What is blocking and how would you troubleshoot it?
Blocking happens when one connection from an application holds a lock and a second
connection requires a conflicting lock type. This forces the second connection to wait, blocked
on the first.
22. How to restart SQL Server in single user mode?
SQL Server can be started from command line, using the SQLSERVR.EXE. This EXE has some
very important parameters with which a DBA should be familiar with. -m is used for starting
SQL Server in single user mode and -f is used to start the SQL Server in minimal
confuguration mode.
23. what are the DBCC commands that you commonly use for database maintenance?
DBCC CHECKDB - Ensures that tables in the db and the indexes are correctly linked.and DBCC
CHECKALLOC - To check that all pages in a db are correctly allocated. DBCC SQLPERF - It
gives report on current usage of transaction log in percentage. DBCC CHECKFILEGROUP -
Checks all tables file group for any damage.
24. What are statistics?
Statistics determine the selectivity of the indexes. If an indexed column has unique values
then the selectivity of that index is more, as opposed to an index with non-unique values.
Query optimizer uses these indexes in determining whether to choose an index or not while
executing a query.
25. Under what circumstances they go out of date, how do you update statistics?
Some situations under which you should update statistics:
1) If there is significant change in the key values in the index
2) If a large amount of data in an indexed column has been added, changed, or removed (that
is, if the distribution of key values has changed), or the table has been truncated using the
TRUNCATE TABLE statement and then repopulated
3) Database is upgraded from a previous version Look up SQL Server books online for the
following commands: UPDATE STATISTICS, STATS_DATE, DBCC SHOW_STATISTICS, CREATE
STATISTICS, DROP STATISTICS, sp_autostats, sp_createstats, sp_updatestats
26. What are the different ways of moving data/databases between servers and
databases in SQL Server?
BACKUP/RESTORE, dettaching and attaching databases, replication, DTS, BCP, logshipping,
INSERT...SELECT, SELECT...INTO, creating INSERT scripts to generate data.
27. Explian different types of BACKUPs avaialabe in SQL Server?
Full database backup, differential database backup, transaction log backup, filegroup backup.
28. What is database replicaion?
Replication is the process of copying/moving data between databases on the same or different
servers.
29. What are the different types of replication you can set up in SQL Server?
SQL Server supports the following types of replication scenarios:
* Snapshot replication
* Transactional replication (with immediate updating subscribers, with queued updating
subscribers)
* Merge replication
30. How to determine the service pack currently installed on SQL Server?
The global variable @@Version stores the build number of the sqlservr.exe, which is used to
determine the service pack installed.
31. What are cursors?
Cursors allow row-by-row prcessing of the resultsets.
32. Explain different types of cursors.
Types of cursors:
Static, Dynamic, Forward-only, Keyset-driven.
33. What are the disadvantages of cursors?
Disadvantages of cursors:
Each time you fetch a row from the cursor, it results in a network roundtrip, where as a
normal SELECT query makes only one rowundtrip, however large the resultset is. Cursors are
also costly because they require more resources and temporary storage (results in more IO
operations). Furthere, there are restrictions on the SELECT statements that can be used with
some types of cursors.
34. How can you avoid cursors?
Most of the times, set based operations can be used instead of cursors. Another situation in
which developers tend to use cursors: You need to call a stored procedure when a column in a
particular row meets certain condition. You don't have to use cursors for this. This can be
achieved using WHILE loop, as long as there is a unique key to identify each row.
35. What is a join?
Joins are used in queries to explain how different tables are related. Joins also let you select
data from a table depending upon data from another table.
36. Explain different types of joins.
Types of joins:
INNER JOINs, OUTER JOINs, CROSS JOINs. OUTER JOINs are further classified as LEFT OUTER
JOINS, RIGHT OUTER JOINS and FULL OUTER JOINS.
37. Can you have a nested transaction?
Yes, very much.
38. What is an extended stored procedure?
An extended stored procedure is a function within a DLL (written in a programming language
like C, C++ using Open Data Services (ODS) API) that can be called from T-SQL, just the way
we call normal stored procedures using the EXEC statement.
39. Can you instantiate a COM object by using T-SQL?
Yes, you can instantiate a COM (written in languages like VB, VC++) object from T-SQL by
using sp_OACreate stored procedure.
40. What is the system function to get the current user's user id?
USER_ID(). Some more system functions: USER_NAME(), SYSTEM_USER, SESSION_USER,
CURRENT_USER, USER, SUSER_SID(), HOST_NAME().
41. What are triggers?
Triggers are special kind of stored procedures that get executed automatically when an
INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE operation takes place on a table.
42. How many triggers you can have on a table?
In SQL Server 6.5 you could define only 3 triggers per table, one for INSERT, one for UPDATE
and one for DELETE. From SQL Server 7.0 onwards, this restriction is gone, and you could
create multiple triggers per each action.
43. How to invoke a trigger on demand?
In SQL Server 7.0 there's no way to control the order in which the triggers fire. In SQL Server
2000 you could specify which trigger fires first or fires last using sp_settriggerorder Triggers
can't be invoked on demand. They get triggered only when an associated action (INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE) happens on the table on which they are defined.
44. What are the uses of Triggers?
Triggers are generally used to implement business rules, auditing. Triggers can also be used to
extend the referential integrity checks, but wherever possible, use constraints for this
purpose, instead of triggers, as constraints are much faster. Till SQL Server 7.0, triggers fire
only after the data modification operation happens. So in a way, they are called post triggers.
But in SQL Server 2000 you could create pre triggers also. Search SQL Server 2000 books
online for INSTEAD OF triggers.
45. What is a self join? Explain it with an example.
Self join is just like any other join, except that two instances of the same table will be joined
in the query. Here is an example: Employees table which contains rows for normal employees
as well as managers. So, to find out the managers of all the employees, you need a self join.
46. What is normalization?
The Process of organizing relational data into tables is actually referred to as normalization.
47. What is a Stored Procedure?
Its nothing but a set of T-SQL statements combined to perform a single task of several tasks.
Its basically like a Macro so when you invoke the Stored procedure, you actually run a set of
statements.
48. Can you give an example of Stored Procedure?
sp_helpdb , sp_who2, sp_renamedb are a set of system defined stored procedures. We can
also have user defined stored procedures which can be called in similar way.
49. What is the basic difference between clustered and a non-clustered index?
The difference is that, Clustered index is unique for any given table and we can have only one
clustered index on a table. The leaf level of a clustered index is the actual data and the data is
resorted in case of clustered index. Whereas in case of non-clustered index the leaf level is
actually a pointer to the data in rows so we can have as many non-clustered indexes as we
can on the db.
50. When do we use the UPDATE_STATISTICS command?
This command is basically used when we do a large processing of data. If we do a large
amount of deletions any modification or Bulk Copy into the tables, we need to basically update
the indexes to take these changes into account. UPDATE_STATISTICS updates the indexes on
these tables accordingly.
51. Which TCP/IP port does SQL Server run on?
SQL Server runs on port 1433 but we can also change it for better security.
52. From where can you change the default port?
From the Network Utility TCP/IP properties –> Port number.both on client and the
server.
53. Can we use Truncate command on a table which is referenced by FOREIGN KEY?
No. We cannot use Truncate command on a table with Foreign Key because of referential
integrity.
54. What is the use of DBCC commands?
DBCC stands for database consistency checker. We use these commands to check the
consistency of the databases, i.e., maintenance, validation task and status checks.
55. What command do we use to rename a db?
sp_renamedb ‘oldname’ , ‘newname’
56. Sometimes sp_reanmedb may not work you know because if some one is using the
db it will not accept this command so what do you think you can do in such cases?
In such cases we can first bring to db to single user using sp_dboptions and then we can
rename that db and then we can rerun the sp_dboptions command to remove the single user
mode.
57. What is the difference between a HAVING CLAUSE and a WHERE CLAUSE?
Having Clause is basically used only with the GROUP BY function in a query. WHERE Clause is
applied to each row before they are part of the GROUP BY function in a query.
58. What do you mean by COLLATION?
Collation is basically the sort order. There are three types of sort order Dictionary case
sensitive, Dictonary - case insensitive and Binary.
59. When do you use SQL Profiler?
SQL Profiler utility allows us to basically track connections to the SQL Server and also
determine activities such as which SQL Scripts are running, failed jobs etc..
60. What is a Linked Server?
Linked Servers is a concept in SQL Server by which we can add other SQL Server to a Group
and query both the SQL Server dbs using T-SQL Statements.
61. Can you link only other SQL Servers or any database servers such as Oracle?
We can link any server provided we have the OLE-DB provider from Microsoft to allow a link.
For Oracle we have a OLE-DB provider for oracle that microsoft provides to add it as a linked
server to the sql server group.
62. Which stored procedure will you be running to add a linked server?
sp_addlinkedserver, sp_addlinkedsrvlogin
63. What are the OS services that the SQL Server installation adds?
MS SQL SERVER SERVICE, SQL AGENT SERVICE, DTC (Distribution transac co-ordinator)
64. Can you explain the role of each service?
SQL SERVER - is for running the databases SQL AGENT - is for automation such as Jobs, DB
Maintanance, Backups DTC - Is for linking and connecting to other SQL Servers
65. How do you troubleshoot SQL Server if its running very slow?
First check the processor and memory usage to see that processor is not above 80%
utilization and memory not above 40-45% utilization then check the disk utilization using
Performance Monitor, Secondly, use SQL Profiler to check for the users and current SQL
activities and jobs running which might be a problem. Third would be to run
UPDATE_STATISTICS command to update the indexes
66. Due to N/W or Security issues client is not able to connect to server or vice versa.
How do you troubleshoot?
First I will look to ensure that port settings are proper on server and client Network utility for
connections. ODBC is properly configured at client end for connection; Makepipe & readpipe
are utilities to check for connection. Makepipe is run on Server and readpipe on client to check
for any connection issues.
67. What are the authentication modes in SQL Server?
Windows mode and mixed mode (SQL & Windows).
68. Where do you think the users names and passwords will be stored in sql server?
They get stored in master db in the sysxlogins table.
69. What is log shipping? Can we do logshipping with SQL Server 7.0?
Logshipping is a new feature of SQL Server 2000. We should have two SQL Server - Enterprise
Editions. From Enterprise Manager we can configure the logshipping. In logshipping the
transactional log file from one server is automatically updated into the backup database on the
other server. If one server fails, the other server will have the same db and we can use this as
the DR (disaster recovery) plan.
70. SQL Server crashed and you are rebuilding the databases including the master
database what procedure to you follow?
For restoring the master db we have to stop the SQL Server first and then from command line
we can type SQLSERVER which will basically bring it into the
maintenance mode after which we can restore the master db.
71. What is BCP? When do we use it?
BulkCopy is a tool used to copy huge amount of data from tables and views. But it
won't copy the structures of the same.
72. What should we do to copy the tables, schema and views from one SQL Server to
another?
We have to write some DTS packages for it.
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